Welcome to Introduction to Behavior Support This course is a resource with information on the fundamentals of behavior support. At the end of the course, you will know: * how to better meet a person's needs so that he or she does not find it necessary to engage in challenging behaviors * how to decrease problem behaviors and increase positive behaviors * how to teach new behavior What are challenging behaviors? Challenging behaviors include behaviors that cause damage to self, others, or property, or that prevent choice, independence, or productivity. Remember: Behavior is not random; it ALWAYS has a purpose. Difficult behaviors result from unmet needs. Basic care such as hygiene and nutrition is not enough! People also need: Stimulation, Friends , and Opportunities to Learn STIMULATION People may need support to become involved in the community, have a job, take vacations, attend church, or work on hobbies. FRIENDS People may need support building and rekindling relationships. OPPORTUNITIES TO LEARN People may need support to develop skills that can help them be more independent. So... how can we support a person who exhibits challenging behaviors? According to David Pitonyak [www.dimagine.com], there are TEN THINGS you can do to support a person with difficult behaviors: 1. Get to know the person * Do not focus on a person's labels (“aggressive,” “angry”). * Spend quality time with the person in a relaxing place. * TELL the person about your concerns. ASK for permission to help. 2. Remember that all behavior is meaningful. * Try to decipher the person’s messages. Common messages conveyed by difficult behavior: “I’m bored.” “I’m lonely.” “I have no power.” “I don’t feel safe.” “You don’t value me.” “I don’t know how to tell you what I need.” “My body doesn’t move like I want it to.” “I am in pain.” *Try to find a pattern—does the behavior routinely happen at a certain time or in a certain place? 3. Help the person develop a support plan. *Don’t just ask, “How can we manage/decrease this behavior?” *Find ways to help the person ~be healthy ~maintain and create relationships ~participate in the community ~make choices ~learn new skills ~make a contribution to others 4. Develop a support plan for the person’s supporters. * Find ways to ~keep staff safe ~have fun at work ~help staff have some control over their work “A person’s needs are best met by a person whose needs are met.” 5. Don’t assume anything! *People are people first. Labels tell us NOTHING about how to support a person. *Don’t automatically believe everything you hear about a person. *Look for the person’s skills and abilities. *Speak directly to the person! ~Never speak about a person as if he were not in the room. ~Don’t assume that a person cannot understand you. 6. Focus on relationships. *Help the person explore relationships outside his circle of paid support. *Help the person maintain past relationships. *Remember that everyone has the power to make someone else’s life richer! 7. Help the person develop a positive identity. *Explore the contributions that the person is able to make to the community. *Help the person volunteer! 8. Give choices. *Making choices promotes independence and empowerment. *For someone who doesn’t know how to express what he wants, giving choices can help him communicate. 9. Help the person have fun. *Put yourself in the person’s shoes. Ask, “Is this an interesting life?” *Do a variety of fun things with the person so he or she can establish preferences. *Make fun a goal! 10. Establish a good working relationship with the person’s primary health care provider. *Difficult behaviors are often tied to illness or discomfort. *Help the person communicate with the doctor if he/she has difficulty doing so. *Take responsibility to watch for signs of illness and symptoms of medication side effects, and call the doctor when necessary. Frequently Asked Questions About Behavior Support: Q: What can we do in the meantime while we try to figure out the cause of the behavior and meet the person's needs? A: Protect the person from harm, communicate with him, and reassure him that you are doing your best to help him. Q: What if the person wants something she can’t have at that moment? A: Teach a coping technique to help her wait patiently, use distraction, or get the person to accept a similar substitute. Q: What if the behavior cannot be redirected? A: Use protection from harm techniques, intervene to de-escalate the situation, bring the person to a quiet area, or let the behavior run its course until it is redirectable. You may need to implement restraint techniques if the potential for serious harm is present. Communication What is communication? Communication is the process of sending and receiving information. It is important for us to understand the principles of communication because challenging behaviors are often a form of communication. There are two forms of communication: Symbolic communication is the use of specific sounds, graphics, markings, or physical motions to represent an idea, concept, or information. This includes verbal language, sign language, written words, or pictures. Non-symbolic communication includes body language, facial expression, changes in muscle tone and is the first type of communication we learn. Some people with significant disabilities are unable to express themselves through verbal or written communication, so it is very important that we learn the concepts of non-symbolic communication so that we can decipher their messages. When a person’s communication skills are limited, other things such as independence, choice, and productivity become limited as well. These limitations breed frustration, fear, and anger, and these emotions sometimes translate into challenging behaviors. Our response to challenging behavior should include recognition that: 1. Challenging behavior always serves a purpose for the person displaying it. 2. The purpose can be identified by conducting a functional analysis. 3. When responding to a challenging behavior, the goal is to teach a replacement behavior, not to simply stop the challenging behavior. 4. A single challenging behavior may serve many purposes, so it may require several response strategies. 5. Responding to challenging behavior will usually involve changing the person’s environment, not changing the person. When dealing with challenging behavior, it is important to learn not only how to decrease the need for difficult behaviors but also how to increase the frequency of appropriate replacement behaviors. Increasing Behaviors Thorndike’s Law of Effect states: "Behaviors that produce good effects tend to become more frequent and behaviors that produce bad effects tend to become less frequent." Consequences: A consequence is something that: *follows a behavior *is caused by the behavior *either increases or decreases the frequency of the behavior when similar conditions are met in the future. Consequences that INCREASE behavior are: positive reinforcement & escape/avoidance A positive reinforcer is a pleasant object or event that is added to the environment following a behavior. Access to the pleasant object or event is not available until after the behavior occurs. Positive reinforcement is a "good effect," therefore the behaviors that resulted in the reinforcement should become more frequent. Common positive reinforcers: *consumables *access to activities *tangibles *social *success *stimulation How to identify good reinforcers: *ask the person what he likes and dislikes *observe the choices the person makes *watch what the person does with his free time *ask about preferences from someone who spends a lot of time with the person *provide samples of a potential reinforcer and watch for the person's response Tips for using reinforcement: *Make sure that the consequence you are using is a reinforcer. ~If the person doesn't enjoy the object or event, it will not be reinforcing! Using cookies as a reinforcer sounds like a great idea... unless the person hates sweets! *Consider the situation. ~Certain things are reinforcing in some situations but not in others. For instance, a teenager might enjoy a hug from his mom at home, but in front of his friends it is not enjoyable. *Watch for "bootleg" reinforcement. ~If the reinforcer is easy to access on a regular basis, a person won't work hard to receive it. If the person drinks pop with lunch every day, having pop as a reinforcer for washing her lunch dishes is probably not going to work. *Present the consequence immediately. *Use a bridge when a delay cannot be avoided. ~If the reinforcer for good behavior at school on Friday is a trip to the zoo on Saturday, make sure to bridge the time gap with praise and reminders of the consequence. Make sure the person associates the reinforcer with the correct behavior. *Use a secondary reinforcer. ~Secondary reinforcers, like money, can be given immediately and cashed in for a variety of things the person wants. *Choose reinforcers that are easy to administer. ~One of the best reinforcers, if the person likes it, is praise. Talk about easy to administer! *Consider satiation and deprivation. ~Using food as a reinforcer sometimes works, but not if the person has just had Thanksgiving dinner and is satiated! A reinforcer works best if the person does not have regular, easy access to it. *Vary the consequence. *Vary the size of the reinforcer, and use an occasional jackpot. *Provide the reinforcer only for genuine effort and success. ~It is tempting to praise and encourage someone at every attempt, but this makes the praise offered to reinforce genuine success less meaningful. *Avoid "white noise." ~Don't give so much praise that the person begins to tune it out. *Be careful to reinforce what you think you are reinforcing. ~If you praise a person for wiping her face with her napkin just as she drops her spoon on the floor, she may associate the praise with dropping the spoon instead of the behavior you meant to reinforce! *Be consistent! *Whenever possible, use a social reinforcer. ~Social reinforcers such as praise, hugs, and proud smiles are fun, easy to administer anywhere, anytime, and help you build a great relationship with the learner. Escape/Avoidance Escape ends an unpleasant event. Ending the unpleasant event is a "good effect," so behaviors that result in escape will usually increase in frequency. Avoidance prevents an unpleasant event. To avoid the event, the person recognizes cues in the environment that, in the past, have been paired with or come before the unpleasant event. Then the person behaves in a way that allows them to avoid the event. Because avoiding an unpleasant event is a "good effect," behaviors that result in avoidance will usually increase in frequency. It is important to understand escape and avoidance because they are sometimes responsible for unintentional learning of problem behavior. Decreasing Behaviors There are 2 ways to decrease behavior: Punishment and Extinction Punishment: ~immediately follows a behavior ~is contingent on the behavior ~decreases the frequency of the behavior when similar conditions are met in the future *At KNI, prescribed punishment is seen as unethical and unnecessary. However, it is still important for staff to understand how punishment works because punishing consequences constantly occur naturally in the environment, and these punishing consequences do affect behavior. For instance, touching a hot stove can result in a painful burn. The burn is a consequence of the behavior of touching the stove, and usually an experience like that will decrease a person's stove-touching behavior in the future. Therefore, this is a naturally occurring punishment. In this case, the punishment has taught the person to be wary of hot surfaces, which is good. However, if natural consequences have punished a behavior that would have led to increased independence, productivity, or choice, there is a problem. There are two kinds of punishment: Aversive *the application of an unpleasant event following the behavior Penalty *the removal of something pleasant from the environment following the behavior ~time out = moving from an environment with pleasant events or objects to an environment with fewer pleasant events or objects ~response cost = the permanent loss of pleasant events or objects already present in the environment. A consequence is only punishing if it decreases the frequency of the behavior in the future. What is punishing, just like what is reinforcing, varies over time and from person to person. Extinction Extinction is the second way to decrease behavior. Extinction simply means that a behavior no longer occurs. Extinction occurs when a behavior that has been reinforced in the past stops resulting in the reinforcing consequences. The most common way to extinguish a behavior is to simply ignore it. Some issues to consider before using extinction: *Extinction burst: a temporary increase in frequency, duration, or intensity of the unreinforced behavior. You must consider what an extinction burst could include and whether it can be tolerated. Giving in to the extinction burst teaches the person that he must use stronger behaviors to receive the reinforcer. *Novel behavior: a behavior added to a sequence of behaviors because the usual sequence has been unsuccessful. These need to be recognized as a part of the original behavior and not reinforced. *Spontaneous recovery: the occurrence of a behavior after it has not occurred for some time. Spontaneous recovery does not indicate that extinction has failed. Guidelines for applying extinction: *Know what is reinforcing the behavior targeted for change. *Decide whether you can eliminate the reinforcer. *Decide whether extinction is safe to use. ~It is unethical to use extinction if the behavior has the potential to cause injuryto the person or others or to destroy property. Protection from harm should always be the first priority. *Determine what an extinction burst might include and whether it can be tolerated. *Consider whether consistency can be maintained. *Use the fair pair rule. ~When you withhold a reinforcer following a specific behavior, you must provide another way to access the reinforcer (through an alternate behavior). Teaching New Behavior There are two ways teaching is used: Skill development and changing problem behavior Skill development is the teaching of skills that will improve a person's independence, productivity, or availability of choices. Problem behavior is any behavior that reduces a person's independence, productivity, or availability of choices. It also includes behavior that is aggressive toward others, causes self-injury, or destroys valuable property. It is the teacher's responsibility to choose carefully what is taught so that learning improves the person's quality of life. Before teaching a new skill or changing a problem behavior: 1. You must decide if teaching is ethical. 2. You must consider the costs and benefits to the person. 3. Measure the behavior targeted for change to determine if teaching is warranted. 4. If you are changing a problem behavior, it is helpful to do a functional analysis. It is ethical to teach a skill or change a behavior when: *The behavior to be changed is putting the person or other people at risk or is causing damage to property that is valued by someone. *The new behavior or skill will permit the person to be more independent and to have more control over his daily routines. *The new behavior or skill will give the person access to valued environments or will increase inclusion. *The new behavior or skill will improve the person's productivity in ways that are meaningful to her. *The new behavior or skill will create new choices. *The new behavior or skill will improve the frequency of positive contact with others. *The new behavior or skill will decrease the person's risk of injury or illness. Before teaching a skill or changing a behavior, you should analyze the costs and benefits, keeping in mind that: * The person must directly benefit from the change. * The costs of making the change or learning the skill must not outweigh the benefit to the person. * Potential medical issues must be addressed before teaching the skill or changing the behavior. It is important to measure the behaviors targeted for change because measuring: ~forces clearer thinking about the issue. ~helps assess whether a teaching effort is necessary. ~identifies antecedents and consequences that may influence the behavior. ~monitors the effectiveness of the teaching effort. Once you have considered the costs, benefits, and ethics and have decided that teaching is appropriate, you should state the purpose of teaching... 1. to increase use of an existing skill 2. to decrease a behavioral excess 3. to acquire a new skill 4. to apply a skill to an appropriate context ...and then begin your teaching strategy! Good teachers should always: * choose relevant skills * respect the learner's individuality * examine the context of teaching * use appropriate reinforcers * repeat, repeat, repeat * always end each teaching session with success Functional Analysis We can safely make two assumptions about behavior: 1. Behavior is not random. It always has a purpose. 2. There is an interaction between behavior and environment. Because we know that every behavior has a purpose, it is very important that before we attempt to change behavior, we discover what the behavior's purpose is. One way to do this is through functional analysis. Functional analysis is the process of systematically looking at how the setting events, consequences, and behavior are interacting. Functional Analysis asks the question, "How does this behavior maximize pleasant events or minimize unpleasant events?" In order to identify the purpose of the behavior, functional analysis attempts to name the antecedents, setting events, consequences, and ultimately, the function of the behavior. *Antecedents are objects or events that come right before the behavior and influence the behavior. *Setting events come before the behavior and make the behavior more likely to occur. *Consequences come after the behavior and influence the frequency of the behavior in the future. Example of an antecedent-behavior-consequence sequence: Joey sees a cookie on the kitchen counter. *This is an antecedent: seeing the cookie influenced his behavior because he would not have eaten the cookie if he had not seen the cookie. However, just seeing the cookie did not guarantee that he would eat it, so while the antecedent influenced the behavior, it did not cause the behavior. He eats it. *This is the behavior. His mother scolds him for ruining his appetite for dinner. *This is the consequence. Example of a setting event-behavior-consequence sequence: Joey is hungry. *This is a setting event: being hungry made it more likely that he would eat the cookie he saw. Joey sees a cookie on the kitchen counter. *This is an antecedent: seeing the cookie influenced his behavior. He eats it. *This is the behavior. His mother scolds him for ruining his appetite for dinner. *This is the consequence. Steps for performing Functional Analysis: 1. Interviewing 2. Observing 3. Measuring/Analyzing 4. Manipulating 1. Interviewing Interviewing the person and other significant people in his or her life is intended to: * identify and prioritize problem behaviors * identify potential setting events and consequences * develop an operational definition of each behavior and setting event You should try to conduct the interview with several different people at different times to get the best information. If you plan to decrease or increase a behavior, you must create an operational definition of the behavior to be increased or decreased. An operational definition provides a picture of what the behavior targeted for change looks or sounds like. An operational definition must be: objective, clear, and complete. The operational definition should: ~describe all variations of the behavior ~describe any exceptions or special conditions ~describe how long a behavior must last to be recorded as an episode ~describe how much time must elapse after the behavior stops to count the next occurrence of the behavior as a separate episode The operational definition works to ensure that all people involved are identifying, measuring and teaching the same thing. 2. Observing It is important to design an observation system that addresses: * the most appropriate dimension on which to focus * the number and length of observation sessions necessary to get a good picture of the pattern of the behavior * the time of day that each observation session will occur There are several dimensions of behavior that can be identified when creating an operational definition. *Topography -the general appearance of the behavior, including all variations *Frequency -the number of times the behavior occurs in a given period *Duration -can be measured as either the total amount of time the individual spent engaging in the behavior, the average duration of each episode, or the percent of the entire observation period that the individual engaged in the behavior -you must specify how to identify the beginning and end of a behavior and how long a behavior must last in order to be counted as an episode *Latency -the amount of time that passes between two events -often measured as the amount of time passing between a prompt or environmental cue and the beginning of the behavior 3. Measuring/Analyzing Use a consistent method of measurement among all observers. * ABC (Antecedent-Behavior-Consequence) Log * Data Sheets (checklist, coding sheet, scatterplot) Then graph and analyze the data to identify potential relationships between the behavior and setting events. 4. Manipulating Test your hypothesis by changing setting events or consequences to see how it will affect the behavior. The intended outcomes of functional analysis are: 1. Identification of antecedents and setting events *antecedents are objects/events that come right before the behavior and influence the behavior *setting events occur before the behavior and make the behavior more likely to occur 2. Identification of the function of the behavior. 3. Identification of changes in antecedents, setting events, or consequences that will influence the behavior as well as changes that will NOT influence the behavior. COMMON SETTING EVENTS Curricular/Instructional Variables: * unpredictable schedule or changes in routine * difficult tasks * little or no reinforcement * curriculum is not meaningful * slow pace of instruction * lack of student choice * lack of task variation * high rate of errors Environmental Variables: * uncomfortable temperatures (too hot or cold) * inadequate space around the individual * inadequate lighting (too bright or dim) * chaotic traffic patterns in the setting * noisy environment * number of people present * uncomfortable seating Health/Personal/Medical Variables: * illness * allergies * menstrual cramps * fatigue * hunger or thirst * medication * mood Social Variables: * presence of staff/amount of staff attention * presence of peers/amount of peer attention * presence of a particular staff or peer * changes in staff * disagreements with family/staff/peers * proximity of family/staff/peers COMMON FUNCTIONS OF BEHAVIOR Sensory A behavior may produce an outcome that feels, tastes, or smells desirable. Escape/Avoidance A behavior may stop or prevent something unpleasant. Attention A behavior may get a reaction from another human being. Tangible A behavior may result in food, drinks, or activities that the person wants. Some issues to consider when performing a functional analysis: * Multi-functional behavior: Some behaviors may serve more than one purpose or may be associated with more than one setting event. * An independent ethics review must be completed before making any changes to the behavior or the environment that may be unpleasant for the person. * If teaching a new behavior is necessary, the new behavior must be functionally equivalent to the behavior it is intended to replace. * The new behavior should also be more efficient than the original behavior. Functional analysis can be very helpful in discovering environmental variables that may be contributing to a behavior and proposing teaching methods that would likely be effective in changing the problem behavior. Prompting Prompting is a shortcut method for teaching behavior. The goal of the instructor is that the student learns the skill well enough that he or she no longer needs any prompts. A prompt is any event that initiates behavior. The five prompt categories can be arranged on a ladder from most intrusive/least natural to least intrusive/most natural: Physical Gestural Modeled Verbal Object *Object prompts use objects in the environment to elicit the expected response. This is the most natural prompting system. *Verbal prompts are any words used to guide, teach, or remind the learner. ~Questioning verbal prompts ask questions to help the learner perfect the skill. ~Initiating verbal prompts teach WHEN to use the skill. ~Instructing verbal prompts teach HOW to use the skill. *Tips for using verbal prompts: ~Be careful of "white noise." If there is a steady, ongoing stream of verbal prompts and praise, the learner will tune out what you are saying. ~Make sure your verbal prompts are not too complex for the learner. Some learners can only handle one simple instruction at a time. ~Stand close enough to the student that your voice can be heard but not so close that you make the person uncomfortable. ~Pay attention to the tone of your voice. *Modeling is demonstrating the desired behavior while the learner observes. *Tips for modeling: ~ Model steps in order. ~ Maintain the learner's attention. ~ Use slow, exaggerated movements. ~ Use other people as models. ~ Position yourself effectively. ~ Adjust for the person's dominant hand. ~ Pair with verbal instructions. *A gestural prompt is any physical movement of another person that leads to the expected behavior. It is different from modeling in that a gesture is usually just a symbol for action. It is critical for the teacher to make sure that the learner understands the gesture. *Physical prompts involve physically helping the person engage in the expected response. *Issues to consider when using physical prompts: ~ Physical prompts are the most intrusive and stigmatizing. ~ They MUST be paired with a fading strategy. When used correctly and paired with an appropriate fading strategy, prompting is a very effective teaching method. Ultimately, though, the learner must be able to perform the skills after responding to natural cues in the environment, so it is the teacher's responsibility to fade prompts as quickly as possible so that the student gains the ability to recognize when to naturally use the skill. Fading Because the ultimate goal of instruction is for the learner to independently use the behavior in the appropriate context, it is important to fade any prompts used while teaching. Fading is the gradual removal of the prompts that are used by the instructor. Fading Strategies Used when first learning a new skill: * Most-to-least * Graduated guidance Used with an almost-mastered skill: * Least-to-most * Time delay Most-to-least (reducing assistance) * offers the MOST information for the learner * begins with using physical prompts to guide the learner through the entire task... * then moves from physical prompts to modeled to verbal and so on * the type of prompt stays consistent throughout the teaching session but changes between teaching sessions Graduated guidance * similar to most-to-least in that it uses a physical prompt * the teacher waits to see what the student will do, then offers help if needed * the prompt strategy changes within the session * teacher looks for opportunities to change the prompt and reduce prompt intensity *There are two types of graduated guidance: ~Shadowing: The teacher follows the student's movements and provides a physical prompt only when needed ~Spatial fading : The teacher gradually changes the location of the physical prompt Least-to-most (increasing assistance) * gives the learner the opportunity to respond to natural cues first * the prompt level gradually increases when necessary * this strategy is used most frequently for people with developmental disabilities * typically used when the skill is almost mastered Time delay * teacher waits for the student to respond to a natural cue in the environment Now that we have learned the basics of teaching using prompts and fading, we will move on to other strategies for increasing and decreasing existing behaviors and teaching new behaviors. Selective Reinforcement Selective reinforcement is the process of reinforcing a desired behavior while withholding reinforcement for an undesirable behavior. Selective reinforcement works because behaviors that produce good effects (reinforcement) will begin to occur more frequently than behaviors that produce no effects. Selective reinforcement can be used when: * there is a desirable alternative behavior to increase * the desirable alternative behavior occurs at least once in a while or can be easily prompted * there is an effective reinforcer available Steps for using selective reinforcement: 1. Define the desirable behavior. 2. Define the undesirable behavior. 3. Identify the reinforcer of the undesirable behavior. 4. Reinforce the desirable behavior immediately and consistently. A good choice for the desirable behavior reinforcer is whatever is currently reinforcing the undesirable behavior. 5. Eliminate the reinforcement for the undesirable behavior. 6. Use intermittent reinforcement to maintain the behavior. 7. Generalize the program. An example of selective reinforcement: Maria loves to get attention from staff, but she often seeks out attention from staff when they are involved in conversations with others. Staff will often stop the conversation to give Maria the attention she seeks, which results in increased episodes of interruptions. Staff decided to use selective reinforcement to increase Maria's ability to wait for staff's attention until they are finished with their conversation and decrease Maria's interruptions. Using selective reinforcement requires two changes: (a) Staff must withhold reinforcement for the undesirable behavior. When Maria attempts to interrupt staff's conversation, staff will tell Maria to wait until the conversation was finished and ignore any other attempts to interrupt. When the conversation is finished, the staff will remind Maria that it is not polite to interrupt and then ask her what she wanted. (b) Staff must reinforce the desirable behavior. When Maria does wait until they are done with their conversation, the staff will be sure to give Maria plenty of attention as soon as their conversation is over, praising her for waiting patiently. Now that we know how to use selective reinforcement to increase and decrease behaviors that the person can already do, let's learn how to teach new behavior through task analysis and shaping. Task Analysis A behavioral chain is the series of ordered steps included in a task. A task analysis is the process of breaking down a behavioral chain into smaller, teachable steps. Strategies for doing a task analysis: * Use an existing task analysis * Watch someone else do the task * Do the task yourself * Ask an expert * Observe the learner trying to do the task Tips for using task analysis: * Break the task up into an appropriate number of steps * Teach the steps in a consistent and correct sequence * Fade prompts A task analysis is a helpful teaching tool. Some methods of teaching using the task analysis are: * Backward chaining * Forward chaining * Total task presentation Backward Chaining *The last step of the chain is taught first. *When the last step is mastered, the next-to-last step is taught. ... This continues until all of the steps have been mastered. The learner participates in only those steps that have been previously mastered or are currently being taught. *This is a good method for: ~Learners who have limited abilities ~Learners who are anxious to receive the natural reinforcer Forward Chaining *The first step of the chain is taught first. *When the first step is mastered, the second step is taught. The learner participates in only those steps that have been previously mastered or are currently being taught. *This method is good for: ~Students who learn easily ~Skills that involve just a few steps Total task Presentation *The instructor prompts the student through all the steps of the chain in the correct order. *All steps are taught at once as a single unit. This method provides much less reinforcement for the learner. *This method is good for: ~Tasks that are not too long or difficult ~Students who learn quickly Task analysis is one way to teach new behavior, and shaping is a great tool for teaching and perfecting new behaviors. Shaping Shaping involves reinforcing more exact performances of a behavior while withholding reinforcement for less exact performances. Shaping sounds a lot like selective reinforcement (in fact, it is a type of selective reinforcement), but the difference is that with selective reinforcement, the person has to already be exhibiting the target behavior at least once in a while. With shaping, you can teach entirely new behaviors, regardless of what the person can already do. Steps to developing a shaping strategy: 1. Define the target behavior. 2. Determine whether shaping is appropriate. 3. Identify a starting behavior that the person can already do. 4. Choose the shaping steps using a task analysis. 5. Choose a reinforcer. 6. Selectively reinforce more exact performances. 7. Move through the steps at a proper pace. 8. Go back to an earlier step if necessary. 9. Monitor progress and end teaching once the target behavior is mastered. Example of a shaping procedure: Target behavior: Child asks for a cookie by saying, "Cookie, please." Starting behavior (child can already do this): Points to cookie jar. Reinforcer: Cookie Shaping steps: 1. Points to cookie jar. 2. Points to cookie jar and says "coo" 3. Points to cookie jar and says "coo-ee" 4. Says, "coo-ee, pease" 5. Says, "cookie, please." ~At first, the child will receive a cookie just for pointing at the cookie jar. After he masters this step, he will no longer receive a cookie for just pointing- he must say "coo" to get the cookie. Then, later, he must say "coo-ee" to get the cookie. He will no longer receive a cookie just for saying "coo." He will progress through the steps until he has mastered the final step-- saying, "cookie, please"-- and at that point he will ONLY receive a cookie if he says, "cookie, please." No other words or gestures will be reinforced. He has been taught an entirely new skill. Selective reinforcement, task analysis, and shaping are all formal methods of instruction. But there are informal ways to teach, too. We will explore those methods next. Incidental teaching Incidental teaching is the process of teaching a skill within the natural flow of a person's day. To be good at incidental teaching, a teacher must be able to recognize: * what a person will be interested in learning * when the person will be willing to focus on learning Characteristics of incidental teaching: * Natural context ~The skill is always taught at a time and in a place where it would normally be used. * Natural reinforcer ~Some activities have a natural reinforcer; for instance, making toast results in the natural reinforcer of food! These reinforcers are powerful motivators. * Natural cues ~Teaching the skill at the time it would normally be used allows the student to learn what natural cues are involved. Teaching bed-making right after the person wakes up reminds the person that waking up is the natural cue for making his bed. * Natural interest ~A good teacher will be skilled at noticing what interests the student. A student is more motivated if the skill being taught is something that interests him or her. * Repeated trials ~Learning happens faster when we practice. If we only practice making the bed once per day, it could take years to learn the skill! But repeating the process just a few times each day can help a student learn the skill more quickly. However, the teacher must be careful to not ask the student to repeat the skill too many times or she will run the risk of frustrating or boring the student. * Brief ~Incidental teaching is always brief. It is a minor consequence of some natural process in the person's day. * Based on choice ~ It is important that the student has a willingness to engage in the learning process. Even if the skill involves something that interests the student, he may not be willing to put in the effort and energy to actually learn the skill. Learning should always be based on the student's choice. Steps for incidental teaching: 1. Notice the learner's interest. ~What does the person enjoy doing? What does he watch or reach for? 2. Is there an opportunity to teach? ~Do you have time to focus on teaching? Is the person in the mood to learn? 3. Use a prompt. ~What kind of prompt would be best to use based on the skill being taught and the learner's abilities? 4. Wait for a response. ~Once the prompt has been given, allow the learner time to respond. 5. Decide if another prompt is necessary. ~If the learner does not respond, decide if he needs another prompt. If he seems uninterested, consider ending the teaching session. 6. Provide feedback. ~If he is successful, give him a reinforcer such as praise. If he is unsuccessful, give him another prompt. 7. Decide whether to continue teaching. ~Is the student willing to practice more? Do you have time to continue? 8. End the session or re-prompt, if you are going to do a second trial. Task Partnering Task partnering is the sharing of any task or activity by two or more people. Task partnering: * implies a willingness to participate * involves a task * is predictable and repetitious * involves taking responsibility for one's own life routines If the person does not seem interested in task partnering, try these tips to encourage participation: * Come back later ~The person might be more willing to participate at a different time of day, or perhaps after a nap. * Offer a different task ~Not everyone enjoys doing the same chores. Someone may love doing laundry but hate taking out trash. If possible, choose to do tasks that you know your partner enjoys. * Change the task ~If the person doesn't seem to enjoy cooking dinner, maybe he would rather set the table! * Invite someone else to participate ~If the person is nervous about performing poorly, seeing a peer succeed will not only be a learning opportunity but will also take advantage of friendly competition for attention. Outcomes of task partnering: * new experiences * meaningful use of time * opportunity for learning through incidental teaching * improvement of a person's willingness to participate * opportunity for friendship and communication Task partnering is an easy, informal way to teach new skills and build relationships with the people you support. Conclusion Supporting people with difficult behavior can be challenging, but we must remember that difficult behavior is a form of communication and is usually the result of unmet needs. Keep in mind that you have the power to help the people you support learn skills and communication strategies that can eliminate the need for difficult behavior and drastically improve their quality of life.